The Wrath of Achilles

For over nine years the siege dragged on without either side gaining a decisive victory. The Trojans were protected by their walls, which the Greeks could not break down, for the ancients had no powerful engines of war like those used in modern armies. Strong fortifications today can be easily destroyed by cannon, but back then there was no cannon, gunpowder, or dynamite. Success in ancient warfare depended almost entirely on the bravery of soldiers or on strategy and cunning, in which the king of Ithaca was especially skilled.

Greek and Trojan warriors fought with swords, axes, bows and arrows, and javelins—long spears tipped with sharp iron points. Sometimes they hurled huge stones at the enemy with all the strength of their powerful arms. They carried round or oval shields on their arms to ward off blows, and these could be moved to cover almost any part of the body. Their chests were protected by metal corselets or breastplates, and metal greaves encased their legs from knee to foot. On their heads they wore helmets, usually made of brass.

The chiefs fought from chariots, from which they hurled spears at the enemy with such force and accuracy that they could wound or kill at a considerable distance. The chariots were two-wheeled, open at the back, and often drawn by three horses. They usually carried two warriors, both standing, and the charioteer, or driver, was generally a companion or friend, not a servant, of the fighters behind him. Sometimes the warriors dismounted and fought hand-to-hand at close quarters. The common soldiers always fought on foot. There were no cavalry.

But in the Trojan War, success or defeat did not always depend on the bravery of soldiers or the skill of generals. Much depended on the gods. We have seen how those divine beings influenced the events that led to the war, and we shall see them taking part in battles, sometimes granting victory to one side and sometimes to the other. The Trojan War was as much a war of gods as of men, and in Homer’s story, we find Jupiter, Juno, Apollo, Neptune, Venus, and Minerva mentioned almost as often as the Greek and Trojan heroes. At the beginning of the Iliad, we find Apollo sending a plague among the Greeks because of an insult to his priest, Chryses. Chryses’ daughter, a beautiful maiden named Chryseis, had been captured by Achilles after the taking of Thebe, a town in Mysia.

During the long siege, the Greek chiefs expanded the war into surrounding districts. While part of their forces remained at the camp to protect the ships and keep the Trojans penned inside their walls, expeditions were sent out against many towns of Troas or neighboring countries that were allies of Troy. When the Greeks captured a town, they carried off not only provisions and riches but also many inhabitants, whom they sold as slaves or kept as slaves for themselves. In one of these expeditions, Priam’s youngest son, Troilus—the hero of Shakespeare’s play "Troilus and Cressida"—was slain by Achilles.

It was in the tenth year of the war that Thebe was taken and the maiden Chryseis captured. Around the same time, the town of Lyrnessus was seized in an expedition also led by Achilles, and among the prisoners was a beautiful woman named Briseis. When the spoils were divided among the chiefs, Chryseis fell to Agamemnon, and Briseis was given to Achilles, who took her to his tent intending to make her his wife. But the priest Chryses was deeply grieved at the loss of his daughter, and he came to the Greek camp to beg the chiefs to restore her. In his hand he carried a golden scepter bound with fillets—green branches that were symbols of his priestly office—along with valuable gifts for King Agamemnon. Admitted to the council of warriors, he pleaded for his child. may your vows be crowned, And Troy's proud walls lie level with the ground. May Jove restore you when your toils are o'er Safe to the pleasures of your native shore.

relieve a wretched parent's pain, And give Chryseis to these arms again." (Pope, Iliad, Book I)

Many of the chiefs were moved to pity and advised granting his request, but Agamemnon angrily refused. He dismissed the priest with scorn and added threatening words: "Old man, let me not find thee loitering here, Beside the roomy ships, or coming back Hereafter, lest the fillet thou dost bear And scepter of thy god protect thee not. This maiden I release not till old age Shall overtake her in my Argive home, Far from her native country." (Bryant, Iliad, Book I)

Chryses then departed from the Greek camp in sorrow, walking along the seashore, and prayed to Apollo to punish the insult to his priest. "O Smintheus! if I ever helped to deck Thy glorious temple, if I ever burned Upon thy altar the fat thighs of goats And bullocks, grant my prayer, and let thy shafts Avenge upon the Greeks the tears I shed." (Bryant, Iliad, Book I)

Apollo heard the prayer and sent a deadly plague upon the Greek army. With his silver bow, whose every clang was heard throughout the camp, the archer god shot his terrible arrows among the Greeks, striking them down in great numbers. "He came as comes the night, And, seated from the ships aloof, sent forth An arrow; terrible was heard the clang Of that resplendent bow. At first he smote The mules and the swift dogs, and then on man He turned the deadly arrow. All around Glared evermore the frequent funeral piles." (Bryant, Iliad, Book I)

For nine days the arrows of death rained upon the Greek army, and the funeral pyres of the victims burned continually, for it was the custom in those times to burn the bodies of the dead. On the tenth day of the plague, Achilles called a council of the chiefs to consider how to appease the god’s anger, and he spoke before them, saying: "Let us consult some prophet or priest who will tell us why Phoebus Apollo is so enraged with us, and whether he may, when we have offered sacrifices upon his altar, take away this pestilence which is destroying our people." Then Calchas, the soothsayer, arose and said: "O Achilles, I can tell why the god is wroth against us, and willing I am to tell it, but perhaps I may irritate the king who rules over all the Argives, and in his anger he may do evil to me. Promise me, therefore, your protection, and I will declare why this plague has come upon the Greeks." "Fear nothing, O Calchas," answered Achilles.

"While I am alive not one of all the Greeks, not even Agamemnon himself, shall harm you." "Fear nothing, but speak boldly out whate'er Thou knowest, and declare the will of heaven. For by Apollo, dear to Jove, whom thou, Calchas, dost pray to, when thou givest forth The sacred oracles to men of Greece, No man, while yet I live, and see the light Of day, shall lay a violent hand on thee." (Bryant, Iliad, Book I)

Thus encouraged, Calchas announced that Apollo was angry because his priest had been dishonored and insulted by Agamemnon. That was why the people were dying, and the god’s wrath could only be appeased by restoring Chryseis to her father and sending a hundred victims to be sacrificed to the god. Hearing these words, Agamemnon was filled with anger against Calchas. "Prophet of evil," he exclaimed, "never have you spoken anything good for me. And now you say I must give up the maiden. I shall do so, since I do not wish the destruction of the people, but I must have another prize, for it is not fitting that I alone of all the Argives should be without one."

To this Achilles replied that there was no prize available. "How can we give you a prize," said he, "since all the spoils have already been divided? We cannot ask the people to return what has been given to them. Be satisfied to let the maiden go. When we have taken the strong city of Troy, we will compensate you fourfold." "Not so," answered Agamemnon. "If the Greeks give me a suitable prize, I shall be content, but if not, I will seize yours or that of Ajax or Ulysses. This matter, however, we will attend to later. For now, let the maid be sent back to her father, that the wrath of the Far-darter may be appeased."

At this, Achilles was very angry and said: "Impudent and greedy man, how can the Greeks fight bravely under your command? As for me, I did not come here to make war against the Trojans because of any quarrel of my own. The Trojans have done no wrong to me. It is to get satisfaction for your brother that we have come here in our ships, and we do most of the fighting while you get most of the spoils. But now I will return home to Phthia. Perhaps then you will have little treasure to share." Greatly enraged, Agamemnon replied in wrathful words: "Go home, by all means, with your ships and your Myrmidons. Other chiefs here will honor me, and I care not for your anger."

"Thus, in turn, I threaten thee; since Phoebus takes away Chryseis, I will send her in my ship And with my friends, and, coming to thy tent, Will bear away the fair-cheeked maid, thy prize, Briseis, that thou learn how far I stand Above thee, and that other chiefs may fear To measure strength with me, and brave my power." (Bryant, Iliad, Book I)

Furious at this threat, Achilles put his hand to his sword, intending to slay Agamemnon, and had half drawn the weapon from its scabbard when the goddess Minerva appeared behind him and caught him by his yellow hair. She had been sent from heaven by Juno to pacify the hero, for Juno and Minerva were friendly to the Greeks. Ever since the judgment on Mount Ida, they hated Paris and the city and country to which he belonged, so they wished no strife among the Greek chiefs that would prevent them from destroying the hated city.

Achilles was astonished to see the goddess, who appeared only to him, invisible to the rest. He instantly knew her and said: "O goddess, have you come to witness the insolence of the son of Atreus? You shall also witness the punishment I shall inflict upon him for his haughtiness." But Minerva spoke soothing words: "I came from heaven to pacify thy wrath, If thou wilt heed my counsel. I am sent By Juno the white-armed, to whom ye both Are dear, who ever watches o'er you both. Refrain from violence; let not thy hand Unsheath the sword, but utter with thy tongue Reproaches, as occasion may arise, For I declare what time shall bring to pass; Threefold amends shall yet be offered thee, In gifts of princely cost, for this day's wrong. Now calm thy angry spirit, and obey." (Bryant, Iliad, Book I)

Achilles answered: "Willingly, O goddess, shall I observe your command, though in my soul much enraged, for so it is better, since the gods are ever favorable to those who obey them." So saying, he put his sword back into its scabbard, while the goddess swiftly returned to Olympus. Then Achilles again addressed Agamemnon with bitter words and took a solemn oath on the scepter he held that he would refuse to help the Greeks when they next sought his aid for battle with the Trojans. "Tremendous oath! inviolate to kings; By this I swear:--when bleeding Greece again Shall call Achilles, she shall call in vain." (Pope, Iliad, Book I)

The venerable Nestor then arose to speak, begging the two chiefs to cease quarreling, for the Trojans would greatly rejoice to hear of strife between the bravest Greeks. He advised Achilles, though born of a goddess, not to contend against his superior in authority, and he entreated Agamemnon not to dishonor Achilles, the bulwark of the Greeks, by taking away his prize. "Forbid it, gods! Achilles should be lost, The pride of Greece, and bulwark of our host." (Pope, Iliad, Book I) But Nestor’s wise words were in vain. Agamemnon would not yield from his purpose, and the council ended.

Rising from that strife of words, the twain Dissolved the assembly at the Grecian fleet. (Bryant, Iliad, Book I)

Immediately after, by the king’s order, the maiden Chryseis was taken to her father’s home, and sacrifices were offered to Apollo. The god’s anger being appeased, the army was relieved from the plague. Then Agamemnon carried out his threat against Achilles. He called two heralds, Talthybius and Eurybates, and commanded: "Go ye to where Achilles holds his tent, And take the fair Briseis by the hand, And bring her hither. If he yield her not, I shall come forth to claim her with a band Of warriors, and it shall be worse for him." (Bryant, Iliad, Book I)

Achilles received the heralds respectfully. He had no blame for them, for they were merely messengers. Nor did he refuse to obey the king’s command. He delivered Briseis to the heralds, and they led her to Agamemnon’s tent. Thus was committed the deed that brought countless woes upon the Greeks, for Achilles, in deep grief and anger, vowed that he would no longer lead his Myrmidons to battle for a king who had so dishonored and insulted him. "Let these heralds," said he, "be witnesses before gods and men of the insult offered to me by this tyrant king, and when there shall be need of me again to save the Greeks from destruction, appeal to me shall be in vain."

Such was the origin of the wrath of Achilles, which is the subject of Homer’s Iliad. The Iliad is not a complete story of the Trojan War, but an account of the disasters that befell the Greeks through the anger of Achilles. The poem relates the events of only fifty-eight days, but they were events of the highest interest and very numerous. As Pope remarked, the subject of the Iliad is the shortest and most single ever chosen by any poet, yet Homer has supplied a vaster variety of incidents, councils, speeches, battles, and events of all kinds than are found in any other poem.

The Iliad begins with the wrath of Achilles, announced in the first line: "Achilles' wrath, to Greece the direful spring Of woes unnumber'd, heavenly goddess, sing! That wrath which hurl'd to Pluto's gloomy reign The souls of mighty chiefs untimely slain; Whose limbs unburied on the naked shore, Devouring dogs and hungry vultures tore: Since great Achilles and Atrides strove, Such was the sovereign doom, and such the will of Jove!" (Pope, Iliad, Book I)

The heavenly goddess invoked here was Calliope, the patroness of epic song and one of the nine Muses. These sister deities, daughters of Jupiter, presided over poetry, science, music, and dancing. Apollo, as god of music and the fine arts, was their leader. They held their meetings on the top of Mount Parnassus in Greece. On its slope was the celebrated spring of Castalia, whose waters were believed to give the true poetic spirit to all who drank of them.